Heritage and Orgin essays

Legacy and Orgin articles What makes an individual a person? Such huge numbers of components add to making an individual extraordinary. In Cleanth Brooks exposition, The English Language in the South, Cleanth perceives factors that draw out the independence of various individuals. Creeks analyzes the generalizations related with highlights and southern jargon. Various legacies and inceptions make an alternate style of language. The parental figures in a childs life significantly impact the manner in which a youngster will see the world for an amazing remainder. Creeks perceives that the demeanor of the south never had a remarkable adoration for the composed word which won in New England(709). A youngster would experience childhood in the south knowing just the language that he had been encircled with. One of Brooks central matters is that the legacy of an individual will decide whom that individual becomes. An individual ought not be embarrassed about his legacy since it is unique. Notwithstanding legacy, starting point is likewise a deciding component in the life of individuals from the south. The south had an alternate jargon. Letters appear to be kept separate from words. The communicated in language of the south is unquestionably one of a kind; in any case, the exceptional language isn't a language coming about because of uneducated and oblivious Americans. The source of southerners impacts the manner in which they react to various circumstances for an amazing duration. Creeks shows his insight into various societies in this exposition. Various components will make an alternate type of language. Legacies and beginnings are the central matters that Brooks sees which will make a gathering of individuals be so extraordinary in their independence that others may look down on them. Creeks central matter in his composing is to demonstrate that individuals are one of a kind, and not better than others due to their birthplace and legacy. ... <!

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Glyconutrients Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Glyconutrients - Essay Example N-acetylneuraminic corrosive Bosom milk Significant for mental health and learning brings down the LDL and restrains strains of flu An and B, microbes and different pathogens Glyconutrients Food sources Fundamental component Impacts of people prosperity as asserted by medicate organizations Xylose Grains-wheat, rye and grain Carrot, beet, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, lettuce, parsley, rhubarb, Brussels grows, red cabbage and asparagus Utilized as a substitute for sucrose and corn sugars Antibacterial, antifungal and forestall malignant growth Galactose Dairy items, vegetables, green growth, numerous foods grown from the ground Found in blend with glucose to frame a disaccharide called lactose Restrain tumor development, upgrades recuperating of wounds , decline irritation and triggers long haul memory arrangement Glucose Milk, mushrooms, different foods grown from the ground and grains Universal saccharide Memory upgrade, legitimate calcium retention Table 2. Grouping of glycoprotein on various tissues. The diagram shows the particular movement of radio named glycoprotein controlled to rodents at 1 and 8 hrs communicated as d.p.m/gm wet load of tissue. As noted , just the liver and digestion tracts decline while the various organs demonstrate a 2-to 6-crease increment in explicit movement (Alton et al 1997 Figure 7). Table 3. Fringe neutrophil checks and other treatment parameters during stopping and resumption of fucose treatment. Fringe neutrophil checks, fucose dosages, serum fucose levels, internal heat level, and C responsive protein (CRP) were recorded for each time point as demonstrated. (Luhn et al. 2001, Figure 1) Rundown OF FIGURES Figure 1. Elements of the Glycoprotein (Nature 1995 refered to in GoGlyco 2005) Figure 2. Delineation of...2001, Figure 1) As prove by the expanding writing, one of the most sweltering new fields of clinical and healthful advancement is glycobiology. Glyconutrients are monosaccharides or sugars that are appended to proteins or lipids and are all in all called glycocongugates. These glycocongugates, found in surface of cells assume a significant job in organic exercises and any irregularity of these glyconutrients would then outcome to malady. Controlled clinical investigations in people and creatures using best in class systematic and analytic are introduced in this report indicating that glyconutrients 1) assume significant jobs in both typical physiology and ailment, 2) can be viably acclimatized when given as dietary enhancements, 3) have organic exercises that are gainful or possibly remedial for specific illnesses and 4) are sheltered when given in the eating routine. In any case, the case of medication organizations that glyconutrients recuperates illnesses is as yet dubious; more research despite everything should be directed. Glycobiology, named by Science Magazine (2001) as the Cinderella, is currently the new wave traveling through the dividers of present day medication and science.

Analysis Of The Impact Of Homelessness On The Health Of Individuals Social Work Essay

Investigation Of The Impact Of Homelessness On The Health Of Individuals Social Work Essay This task will dissect the effect of vagrancy on the soundness of people and concentrating on the impact vagrancy has on a people psychological well-being and assessing the reaction of wellbeing suppliers. The legitimate meaning of vagrancy expresses that a person as being destitute on the off chance that they don't have a lawful option to involve convenience, or if their settlement is unacceptable to live in. (Vagrancy Act 2002) Vagrancy is a significant social issue particularly in urban zones; in 2008 3500 individuals rested unpleasant in London alone (Broadway 2009). Vagrancy is frequently alluded to as resting in the city; this is a typical misinterpretation with vagrancy existing in a wide range of structures. In all actuality resting on the boulevards is the most outrageous type of vagrancy. (Activities to handle vagrancy and harsh resting in London 2008) Vagrants could either be families or single individuals who don't rest on the boulevards however live in elective settlement, this is upheld by the Government which expressed in 2003: by far most of vagrants are really families or single individuals who are not truly dozing on the roads yet living with family members and companions or in transitory convenience (ODPM 2003). Most of vagrants live in brief convenience; these incorporate overnight boardinghouses, lodgings, sanctuaries, shelters or inns. These impermanent types of convenience will in general be low quality and hindering to their wellbeing and prosperity. The consequences of not having perpetual settlement have an immediate connect to high feelings of anxiety and commonsense troubles. Nearby specialists have a lawful obligation to give help and guidance to individuals who are legitimately characterized as destitute, or somebody who is undermined with vagrancy. Be that as it may, because of the models of need not every person inside the lawful meaning of vagrancy fundamentally meets all requirements for settlement. (Pereira test) A greater part of individuals see vagrancy as the consequence of people individual failings throughout everyday life, and accept that an individual decides to be destitute. Research by the Scottish government found that 48% of the UK open accepted that vagrants could discover some place to live on the off chance that they attempted, and 35% accepted that individuals got destitute, absolutely on the premise to get a chamber house. (Ormston 2006) Anyway the reasons for vagrancy are an unpredictable exchange between a people singular conditions and troublesome basic components, which are beyond their ability to do anything about. These issues can work over years, until a point where everything has arrived at emergency, this is the point at which an individual gets destitute. Fitzpatrick (2005) investigated the positivist and interpretivist ways of thinking. These two models depend on various hypotheses about the idea of the real world. Positivists accept that information must be built up on what can be experienced or watched. Positivist ganders at factually critical factors for instance the absence of social lodging and a people family issue can prompt somebody getting destitute. In any case, this ca exclude the populace in general, not all individuals with family issues in zones where there is an absence of social lodging gets destitute. These individuals are at an expanded danger of getting destitute, anyway it doesn't clarify the reasons for vagrancy. Interpretivism is a term that incorporates different standards, all related with implications and encounters of individuals. Fitzpatrick (2005) closed basic authenticity could clarify the reasons why individuals become destitute. Pragmatists take in various variables which could bring about somebody getting destitute, for instance financial structures, contingent upon government assistance arrangements and social class can make somebody increasingly admired to vagrancy. Pragmatists likewise think about the flexibly of moderate lodging as a credit to vagrancy. Giddens built up the Structuration Theory which expressed that force exists at various focuses inside society for instance neighborhood specialists, committees and the legislature. Anyway Giddens states that an individual can have an effect and change things from occurring. For instance if a childs had substance reliance, the youngster is bound to likewise have substance reliance; this is their anticipated destiny. Giddens anyway contends that an individual can have an effect of what befalls them. Like the interpretivist approach, Giddens recognizes that public activity is delivered and duplicated through activity. (Giddens) Post pioneers and post structualists contend that there is nobody purpose behind somebody getting destitute. Individuals can get destitute from a scope of complex and covering reasons; for instance, an individual may have liquor conditions, which could prompt the finish of a relationship, in this manner being tossed out of the conjugal home. Unraveling vagrancy is more unpredictable than basically putting a rooftop over an individual/familys head; work should be completed to tackle the hidden issues that brought about the reason for vagrancy in the main case. These issues may incorporate individual variables, which can comprise of liquor or medication abuse, an absence of social help from companions or family, poor physical or psychological well-being, relationship breakdown through separation, the death of a relationship and obligations especially home loan or lease unpaid debts. Family foundation may likewise be a contributing variable to vagrancy; this may incorporate family break downs and debates, physical and sexual maltreatment in youth, having guardians with liquor or medication conditions, or a family ancestry of vagrancy. Research by Ravenhill 2000 analyzed the courses into vagrancy found that family strife was the most well-known beginning stage for vagrancy. Having an institutional foundation may likewise add to an individual getting destitute, these incorporate individuals who have been in care, in jail or in the military. This announcement is upheld up by a report charged by Shelter 2007 found that 25% of vagrants has invested energy in jail. Basic reasons for vagrancy are social and financial in nature; these are frequently outside the control of the family or individual concerned. This may incorporate the absence of moderate lodging; in England 4.5 million individuals are on the social lodging holding up list (CLG 2009) This number is anticipated to rise exactly 2 million family units by 2010 (LGA 2008). As the interest for social lodging rises, the gracefully has diminished by 32%, in 1981 there were 5.5 million, in 2007 there were 3.7 million (CLG 2008). Destitution can likewise be related with an auxiliary reason for vagrancy, an absence of money related assets make individuals increasingly powerless against vagrancy as they don't have budgetary strength, for instance, joblessness. Destitution is on the expansion in the UK in 2007/2008 practically 13.5 million individuals were living in neediness. The lodging advantage framework can likewise forestall individuals recuperating from neediness. This framework makes boundaries for those attempting to work (joblessness trap) and individuals in low paying employments attempting to increae their salary (destitution trap). Lodging advantage can likewise square inquirers exertion to increase new capabilities, as anybody beyond 18 years old isn't qualified for Housing Benefit in the event that they are concentrating over 16 hours out of each week. These above variables are out of the people hands, as they require strategy arrangements, for example, changes in the lodging advantage framework, and the structure of progressively moderate lodging in every nearby power. Candidates for vagrancy support from neighborhood specialists recognized that the three fundamental explanations behind having lost their last settled home were; family or companions were reluctant or unfit to oblige them, the loss of guaranteed short hold occupancy and relationship breakdown (Statutory Homelessness Statistics 2008). Anyway these reasons are just factors, which trigger individuals into looking for help, and are not the crucial reasons that development in any case. For some individuals there is no single occasion that outcomes in unexpected vagrancy, anyway vagrancy is because of various issues that have developed after some time. Vagrancy can reoccur later on because of fundamental issues and issues staying uncertain. An investigation charged by Shelter 2007 found that the most successive explanation given for living on the road were, relationship breakdown: 41 percent, being approached to leave the family home: 28â per penny, medication and liquor issues: 31 percent and 28 percent individually, leaving jail: 25â per penny, psychological wellness issues: 19 percent, other: for instance, removal, issues with benefits installments. Interviewees recognized a few variables adding to their vagrancy, which uncover that reasons for vagrancy can't be a result of one single factor. Crane (1999) contended that joblessness; accessibility of moderate lodging and destitution had little impact on somebody getting destitute. Crane found in her respondents that individual deficiencies, for example, psychological wellness, enthusiastic trouble and adapting capacities were increasingly noteworthy as reasons for vagrancy. The experience of vagrancy can have a genuine inconvenient impact on a people physical and mental prosperity. This is particularly evident on account of unpleasant sleepers, who have on normal future of 42 years, contrasted with the national UK normal of 74 for men and 79 for ladies (Grenier 1996) Poor physical or emotional wellness just as liquor or medication reliance are medical issues for the whole destitute populace, regardless of whether they are dozing in the city, in inns or in brief convenience. Mental sick wellbeing, physical handicaps or reliance issues can likewise trigger or be a piece of a chain occasion that lead to somebody getting destitute. Disconnection made by being destitute regularly implies that individuals think that its hard to get to help with administrations not being in a situation to react to the requirements of vagrants. Poor physical healt

How to Write an Abstract in APA Format

How to Write an Abstract in APA Format Student Resources APA Style and Writing Print How to Write an APA Abstract By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on January 08, 2020 Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee More in Student Resources APA Style and Writing Study Guides and Tips Careers In This Article Table of Contents Expand Overview Basic APA Format Writing an Abstract Length View All Back To Top APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association and is used in psychology writing as well as other social sciences. These style guidelines specify different aspects of a documents presentation and layout, including how pages are structured, the organization of references, and how citations are made. This format also stipulates the use of an abstract designed to very briefly summarize the key details contained in a paper without providing too much detail. Why Is an Abstract Important in APA Format? While it is sometimes overlooked or only an afterthought, an abstract is an important part of any academic or professional paper. This brief overview serves as a summary of what your paper contains, so it should succinctly and accurately represent what your paper is about and what the reader can expect to find. Fortunately, by following a few simple guidelines, you can create an abstract that generates interest in your work and help readers quickly learn if the paper will be of interest to them. The Basics of an APA Format Abstract The abstract is the second page of a lab report or APA-format paper and should immediately follow the title page. Think of an abstract as a highly condensed summary of your entire paper. The purpose of your abstract is to provide a brief yet thorough overview of your paper. The APA publication manual suggests that your abstract should function much like your title pageâ€"it should allow the person reading it too quickly determine what your paper is all about. The APA manual states that the abstract is the single most important paragraph in your entire paper. Your abstract is the first thing that most people will read, and it is usually what informs their decision to read the rest of your paper. A good abstract lets the reader know that your paper is worth reading. According to the official guidelines of the American Psychological Association, a good abstract should be: Brief but packed with information. Each sentence must be written with maximum impact in mind.?? To keep your abstract short, focus on including just four or five of the essential points, concepts, or findings.Objective and accurate. The abstracts purpose is to report rather than provide commentary. It should also accurately reflect what your paper is about. Only include information that is also included in the body of your paper.?? How to Write an Abstract First, write your paper. While the abstract will be at the beginning of your paper, it should be the last section that you write. Once you have completed the final draft of your psychology paper, use it as a guide for writing your abstract.Begin your abstract on a new page and place your running head and page number 2 in the top right-hand corner. You should also center the word Abstract at the top of the page.Keep it short. According to the APA style manual, an abstract should be between 150 to 250 words.?? Exact word counts can vary from journal to journal. If you are writing your paper for a psychology course, your professor may have specific word requirements, so be sure to ask. The abstract should also be written as only one paragraph with no indentation.Structure of the abstract in the same order as your paper. Begin with a brief summary of the Introduction, and then continue on with a summary of the Method, Results, and Discussion sections of your paper.Look at other abstracts in professional journals for examples of how to summarize your paper. Notice the main points that the authors chose to mention in the abstract. Use these examples as a guide when choosing the main ideas in your own paper.Write a rough draft of your abstract. While you should aim for brevity, be careful not to make your summary too short. Try to write one to two sentences summarizing each section of your paper. Once you have a rough draft, you can edit for length and clarity.Ask a friend to read over the abstract. Sometimes having someone look at your abstract with fresh eyes can provide perspective and help you spot possible typos and other errors. Things to Consider When Writing an Abstract The format of your abstract also depends on the type of paper you are writing. For example, an abstract summarizing an experimental paper will differ from that of a meta-analysis or case study. For an abstract of an experimental report: Begin by identifying the problem. In many cases, you might begin by stating the question you sought out to investigate and your hypothesis.Describe the participants in the study. State how many participants took part and how they were selected. For example, you might state that In this study, 215 undergraduate student participants were randomly assigned to [the experimental condition] or [the control condition].Briefly describe the study method used. For example, you might identify if you used a within-subjects, between-subjects, or mixed design.Give the basic findings. This is essentially a very brief preview of the results of your paper.  Provide any conclusions or implications of the study. What might your results indicate and what directions does it point to for future research. For an abstract of a meta-analysis or literature review: Describe the problem of interest. In other words, what is it that you set out to investigate in your analysis or review.Explain the criteria that were used to select the studies included in the paper. Realistically, there may be many different studies devoted to your topic. Your analysis or review probably only looks at a portion of these studies. For what reason did you select these specific studies to include in your research?Identify the participants in the studies. Just as in an experimental abstract, you need to inform the reader about who the participants were in the studies. Were they college students? Older adults? How were they selected and assigned?Provide the main results. Again, this is essentially a quick peek at what readers will find when they read your results section. Dont try to include everything. Just quickly provide a very brief summary of your main findings.  Describe any conclusions or implications. What might these results mean and what do they reveal about th e body of research that exists on this particular topic? How Long Should Your Abstract Be? The sixth-edition APA manual suggests that an abstract be between 150 and 250 words. However, they note that the exact requirements vary from one journal to the next. If you are writing the abstract for a class, you might want to check with your instructor to see if he or she has a specific word count in mind. Psychology papers such as lab reports and APA format articles also often require an abstract. In these cases as well, the abstract should include all of the major elements of your paper, including an introduction, hypothesis, methods, results, and discussion. Remember, although the abstract should be placed at the beginning of your paper (right after the title page), you will write the abstract last  after you have completed a final draft of your paper. In order to ensure that all of your APA formatting is correct, consider consulting a copy of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. In order to ensure that all of your APA formatting is correct, consider consulting a copy of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. A Word From Verywell The abstract may be very brief, but it is so important that the official APA style manual identifies it as the most important paragraph in your entire paper. It may not take a lot of time to write, but careful attention to detail can ensure that your abstract does a good job representing the contents of your paper.   Some more tips that might help you get your abstract in tip-top shape: Look in academic psychology journals for examples of abstracts.Keep on hand a copy of a style guide published by the American Psychological Association for reference.If possible, take your paper to your schools writing lab for assistance.

Female Characters in The House of Mirth - Literature Essay Samples

The relationship between the ideal and the reality is many times pictured in black and white. The ideal can be defined as a conception of something in its perfection, whereas reality is defined as something that exists independently of ideas concerning it. In The House of Mirth, Edith Wharton blurs the relationship between ideals and reality by introducing characters that represent different ideals emphasizing womanhood and beauty, but not allowing them to be absolutely flawless. Wharton epitomizes the ideal women not as those who are â€Å"perfect ornaments of jewel-like rareness† (94), but those who can embrace in their own imperfections and attain happiness apart from society’s expectations. By analyzing the women Wharton utilizes in the novel and focusing specifically on their imperfections and the way they present and handle them, one can understand Wharton’s notion of the â€Å"ideal woman.† From the inception of the novel, Mr. Selden, a â€Å" detached observer of the [high-class social] scene† (99), is caught admiring the protagonist, Lily Bart. A woman at the age of 29 and unmarried, Lily is fascinatingly beautiful and intelligent. At social gatherings, men cannot take their eyes off of her radiant beauty and vigor. Lily is manipulative of her own splendor, using her beauty as a power to win over her targets: â€Å"Her beauty itself was not the mere ephemeral possession it might have been in the hands of inexperience: her skill in enhancing it, the care she took of it, the use she made of it, seemed to give it a kind of permanence. She felt she could trust it to carry her through to the end† (50). Despite Lily’s flawless beauty, Selden observes that â€Å"the qualities distinguishing her from the herd of her sex were chiefly external, as though a fine glaze of beauty and fastidiousness had been applied to vulgar clay† (30). Is it not ironic that something so perfect can be described as v ulgar? In addition, Lily is described as an object: â€Å"she must have cost a great deal to make, that a great many dull and ugly people must have been sacrificed to produce her† (3). It is evident that Wharton intentionally analogizes Lily to moldable clay, an object lacking in definite shape, but finds form by the shaping and molding of others. This analogy suits Lily perfectly in both her financial situations as well as her emotional quandaries. All of her decisions are based according to how others will perceive her. She lives a life of calculations: adding and subtracting the ideal and the reality to make herself more popular. Although Lily is delineated as a character with ideal outward beauty, she has imperfections that she attempts to hide from the New York society she aspires to join. One of Lily’s biggest flaws is her obsessive desire and lust for money. â€Å"Lily could not recall the time when there had been money enough, and in some vague way, h er father seemed always to blame for the deficiency† (29). She did not come from an affluent family, but her mother â€Å"was famous for the unlimited effect she produced on limited means† (30). In this way, Lily is naturally proud of her mother’s aptitude and grows up to belittle dinginess. After her mother’s death, Lily strives to be an upper-class New Yorker. She indulges in gambling and speculates on Wall Street. She purchases sophisticated clothing because she believes that â€Å"the clothes are the background, the frame, of success† (10). To her, not only will money free her from her obligations, but it will also provide her with the ability to live life however she wants. Her hopeless addiction to the pleasures of the world of luxury and grace ultimately renders her unfit for survival. When all her money vanishes and her debts consume her, Lily becomes a prisoner to her dire situation. She is chained to the impulses of those around he r, bound to the demands of the upper-class circles, and enslaved in her own helplessness to be happy without money. Like clay that can only be shaped by human hands, Lily is â€Å"inwardly as malleable as wax† (54), as her perception of herself is based on her societal status and what society thinks of her. Her obsession with money is also the reason Lily continuously denies her emotions for Selden and is so willing to marry someone she does not love. She blatantly states to Selden in the beginning of the novel that â€Å"I [Lily] am horribly poor – and very expensive. I must have a great deal of money† (8). Despite the fact that Selden genuinely cares for her and is the only constant throughout the novel, she refuses to marry him because he cannot provide for her financially. By listening to society’s emphasis on social stature and money, Lily acts against her real emotions for Selden. She rejects the freedom she feels when she is alone with Selde n, this freedom â€Å"from everything – from money, from poverty, from ease and anxiety, from all the material accidents† (70). Her lust for money eventually leads her not only to financial ruin but expulsion from the upper-class society. She is â€Å"reduced to the fate of that poor Silverton woman, slinking about to employment agencies and trying to sell painted blotting-pads to Women’s Exchanges† (282). Her remaining friends no longer have hope for her unless she completely detaches herself from the old associations. Knowing that she has relinquished all hopes for happiness, Lily ultimately achieves a kind of ideal status in her death. She reimburses the nine thousand dollars she owes Trenor and meets with Selden to confess of her mistake in refusing him. No longer in the bondage of her own lust for money and acceptance in an upper-class society, she admits to Selden that she is a â€Å"coward† and finally understands that she â€Å"can ne ver be happy with what had contented me [her] before† (326). Lily ends her life â€Å"on this tragic yet sweet vision of lost possibilities, which gave her a sense of kinship with all the loving and foregoing in the world† (340). Unable to embrace her imperfections and only finding it in death, she does not represent the ideal woman. Another woman Wharton utilizes to clarify the notion of the â€Å"ideal women† is Bertha Dorset, a character that completely contrasts Lily. It is important to note that The House of Mirth was published in 1905, right after America’s Gilded Age. This time period refers to the opulence of the post civil-war years in America. Between the 1870s and the 1890s, the rich became richer; the poor became poorer. An increasing separation is seen between the extravagantly wealthy and the struggling poor. Bertha Dorset represents the lavishly well-to-do class that Lily aspires to join. She has a secure spot in the elitist circle b ecause she is married to a man of great wealth. Unfortunately, even with all the riches, the ornamentations, and the excess, she is not happy. Similar to many women in her social realm, she is married to a man she does not love in order to establish and protect her social standing. In searching for happiness, she becomes involved in countless extramarital affairs with other men. In addition, she is delineated as a â€Å"nasty woman† who â€Å"delights in making people miserable† (45). Bertha manipulates Lily into going on a voyage to distract her husband while she pursues her affair with another man. However, when Bertha feels threatened by Lily’s success with people of nobility and fears that her husband will discover her affair with another man, she decides to remove Lily from the yacht. With so much power, money, and influence in her hand, Bertha destroys Lily’s reputation, confidence, and hope in establishing herself in the elitist world of wom en. The House of Mirth criticizes the exclusive sphere of women like Bertha Dorset by promoting the theme that one cannot buy happiness. Despite all the wealth that is in her hands, Bertha, like Lily, is inconsistent both with reality and with happiness. Bertha and her circle of friends conceal their â€Å"true selves† at dinner parties and social gatherings; they conceal their blemishes and mistakes. The role of acting manifests to readers that everyone is playing a role to create a faà §ade that influences others to esteem them more. By juxtaposing Bertha Dorset and Lily Bart, Wharton demonstrates that neither beauty nor money can bring contentment. Lily aspires to be as wealthy as Bertha, but does she know that Bertha can never achieve happiness even with all that she possesses? It is impossible to be genuinely happy if one cannot free herself from society’s expectations and accept her imperfections. The epitome of the â€Å"ideal woman† in Whartonâ €™s The House of Mirth is Selden’s cousin, Gerty Farish. Because Selden and Gerty are cousins, the two share a similar attitude towards the rich. They both have potential to move within the elite social circles, but they choose to remain detached. Instead, they view happiness and love as something to be found rather than purchased. Selden believes that one should keep a â€Å"republic of the spirit,† free from worldly concerns and similarly, Gerty lives independently of outside worries. Although Lily disparages her in the inception of the novel because of her dinginess and simplistic lifestyle, commenting on her â€Å"horrid little place, and no maid, and such queer things to eat† (5), she later admires her in her philanthropy work and learns what it means to truly live in poverty. Gerty is an idealized portrayal of American womanhood who is unblemished by the wealth that has consumed many others. Although she does not possess Lily’s beauty nor Bertha’s prosperity, by accepting her imperfections and her deficiencies, she finds happiness in laboring for a living and committing to charity events in her spare time. Upon discovering Selden’s love for Lily, Gerty â€Å"felt the poverty, the insignificance of her surroundings; she beheld her life as it must appear to Lily. She lay face to face with the fact that she hated Lily Bart† (171). However, when she is confronted by Lily in the middle of the night, her â€Å"compassionate instincts, responding to the swift call of habit, swept aside all her reluctances. Gerty had unconsciously adopted the soothing note of her trade; all personal feeling was merged in the sense of ministry, and experience had taught her that the bleeding must be stayed before the wound is probed† (172). Gerty is a character who symbolizes genuine kindness. Her ability to sacrifice her love for Selden by remaining loyal and steadfast in assisting Lily and her modest and in dependent lifestyle emphasize her noble and ideal character. Wharton ultimately shows readers that the ideal woman is not only one who can accept her imperfections, but one who is also strictly detached from the world of lavishness and overabundance. Through the protagonist, Lily Bart, one can understand that beauty alone is inconsistent with reality and happiness. Lily has indulged herself too deeply in society’s expectations of the rich and the wealthy and only in her death, does she achieve the ideal status of womanhood. Bertha Dorset, the novel’s antagonist, contrasts Lily. She represents opulence and class, but the role of acting consumes her life. By choosing to be a part of the upper-class society, Bertha chooses to live a life of constant competition with others. Therefore, the best representation of the â€Å"ideal woman† in this novel is Gerty Farish. She is of neither beauty nor wealth, but of love and kindness. Although her simplicity and p lainness are viewed as imperfect, those imperfections mark something much more valuable: her heart.

Strombidae Protected Fisheries - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6150 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Strombus gigas, A Threatened But Protected Species Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Strombidae Protected Fisheries" essay for you Create order 65 species of Strombidae are still in existence and the majority of those are found in the Indo-Pacific Oceans (ConchNews). 6 species of Strombidae are found throughout the Caribbean and Florida oceans (McCarthy, 2007): S. alatus, S. costatus, S. gallus, S. gigas, S. pugilis, and S. raninus, one of which, Strombus gigas, known as the Queen Conch, has highest commercial fisheries value of the six species and is commercially threatened. In 1990 the parties to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) included S. gigas in Annex II of its Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) as a species that may be used on a rational and sustainable basis and that requires protective measures (NOAA). Consequently on 11th June 1992 the United States listed S. gigas under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Appendix II; classi fied as commercially threatened (Theile, 2005). S. gigas then became the first large-scale fisheries product regulated by CITES (NOAA). This requires countries to harvest at a sustainable rate before they can obtain a permit to export (Thiele, 2001). The SPAW Protocol and CITES treaties are generally a positive step for the species, assisting efforts to ensure use and trade of S. gigas, however this is largely a commercial move and should not be confused with meaning it is officially on the endangered/threatened species list. S. gigas is simply on a list of species, fauna and flora not yet threatened or endangered, but with legal commitment by the governments to prevent them becoming so by implementing plans for management by establishment of closed seasons and regulation of their harvest and trade (Thiele, 2005). The Caribbean Fishery Management Council supports a regional International Queen Conch initiative, to promote a common international management strategy for the sustainable use of S resources in the Caribbean region, by making recommendations to address specific issues. E.g. International Queen Conch Initiatives (FAO 2003). In January 1991, 12 of the 14 Governments of the Caribbean Community officially launched the CARI COM Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Programme (CFRAMP) to promote sustainable use and conservation of the fisheries resources, setting up the 1994 Lobster and Conch Resource Assessment Unit to provide data on conch and lobster resources in the Caribbean (Haughton 2004). Fig 1.1 The wider Caribbean region showing hypothetical Exclusive Economic Zones of countries those of CARICOM countries are shaded grey (Haughton, 2004). 1.2 Commercial Importance History Of Queen Conch Fisheries S. gigas, have been harvested by Caribbean fishermen for centuries (Stoner 1997), in some regions old conch shell middens show conch have been fished for over 1400 years (Torres, 2002) used for religious ceremonies, for trade and ornamentation, and a source of protein from its meat. Fishing pressure, previously entirely small-scale local fisheries on surrounding islands, has now developed into a large commercial trade commodity with an important fishery resource in the Caribbean area and increasing international demand for the rare meat (Berg Olsen 1989). Outside of the live meat trade, S. gigas is also known for its pearls and shells, sold by locals and tradesmen to tourist as souvenirs as a by-product of conch meat harvest. The increase in intensive fishing pressure caused by its rising commercial value since the 1970s (Cochrane et al 1996) has caused queen conch populations to decline throughout their distribution range (Stoner, 1997; Theile, 2005). This is largely due to the slow maturation growth to harvest size of 3-4 years (Davis) ensuring S. gigas are unable to offset the development of fisheries technical enhancements allowing them to fish larger quantities and at previously unobtainable depths (Wells 1989). The use of scuba and hookah gear from 1984 has now become widespread and due to the depletion of near-shore shallow water stocks because of overfishing, former deep-water refugia (20 m) is now increasingly accessible and subject to the same intense exploitation (CFMC/CFRAMP, 1999), shifting fishing efforts from near-shore to offshore areas in parts of the Bahamas, Colombia, Mexico, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (CITES, AC19 Doc. 8.3 2003). In 1986, the U.S. banned all fishing of Strombus g igas populations instead importing approx. 80% of world trade, 1,000t year-1 (NOAA 2003), from Caribbean Islands. The majority of S. gigas populations the U.S are importing from have continued to decline. CITES reviews, following species listing in 1992, report population densities in some areas to be so low that recruitment failure is a risk to local fisheries in parts of Belize, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Honduras, Panama, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands with stock collapses and resulting in total or temporary closure of the fishery in Bermuda, Cuba, Colombia, Florida, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, the Virgin Islands and Venezuela (CITES AC19, Doc. 8.3 2003). The primary cause for the population decline is widely demonstrated to be commercial trade overfishing (Stoner, 1994) but Stoner (1994) implies habitat degradation may be a secondary factor, especially in the shallow water nursery habitats of seagrass meadows, which are crucial to Strombus gigas sustainab ility. There are still some larger areas that still maintain stable populations, the Bahamas (Stoner Ray, 1996), Jamaica (Stoner Schwarte 1994) and the Turks and Caicos Islands due to hatchery replacement (Bene Tewfik, 2001) as well as smaller areas of St. Lucia, St Vincent and Virgin Islands (taken from Table 1, p76 Cochrane, 1996). The significant trade review undertaken in 1995, at the 13th meeting of the Animals Committee, formulated recommendations in 1997 requiring states to prove conformity to CITES and slowly by March 1999 most states had conformed. By 2005 Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Belize, Colombia, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago had been removed from the Review of Significant Trade of S. gigas (CITES SC54 Doc. 42, 2006). However, CITES recognizes that despite being registered for over 10 years stock declines continue to occur (Notification No. 2006/055, 2006) and in 2006 the Animals Committee concluded that trade was of urgent concern in 3 range states and of possible concern in a further 13 (CITES SC54 Doc. 42, 2006). The important exporting countries of Haiti and Grenada have released no information and with low adult densities reported from fishing all exports from the se states have been suspended as they may currently being exploited at rates that may be unsustainable (CITES AC22 Doc. 10.1). The National Marine Fisheries Service support the CITES embargo on queen conch imports (NOAA, 2003) which will remain until evidence is provided that the CITES recommendations have been implemented (Thiele, 2001). 1.3 Biology of Strombus gigas Strombus gigas are large, soft-bodied, marine shelled gastropod molluscs. They have a thin layer of tissues between the body and the shell, a mantle, which creates a hard external spiral-shaped shell up to 30 cm in length from calcium carbonate extracted from the seawater and sediments. This outer shell develops the distinctive pink coloured flared lip that easily identifies the species and is why the shell also has a horny periostracum coating to deter predators. The body is divided into the head, the visceral mass, and the foot. posterior anterior Fig 1.2 Adult female conch without her shell (FWRI, 2006) The conch head has a pair of tentacles tipped with light-sensitive eyestalks and a long proboscis radula that has thousands of tiny denticle protrusions for feeding. The foot, at the posterior, is a pointed, sickle-shaped, hardened operculum tip used to propel forward in a unique type of hopping locomotion commonly referred to as stromboid leap propulsion. This enables escape from predators by breaking up their scent trail (FWRI, 2006). They have a siphonal canal with an indentation near the anterior end called a stromboid notch. (Hyman 1967, Abbott 1974 quoted https://bellsouthpwp.net/c/u/culpsb/conchnews/strombidae). 1.3.1 Ecology of Strombus gigas Strombus gigas inhabits the neotropical Atlantic waters of Bermuda, southern Floridian and Mexican coasts of Central America in the Gulf of Mexico Caribbean Sea region, and off the South America coasts of Venezuela and Brazil. Strombus gigas are herbivorous, grazing primarily on algae, grasses, and floating organic debris and are consequently usually found in warm, shallow, clear, subtidal water of oceanic or near-oceanic salinities settled on sandy substrates, in rocky habitats, on coral reefs or coral rubble sea floors amongst seagrass and algae (McCarthy, 2007; Cochrane, 1996). Strombus gigas can be found in discrete aggregations up to hundreds or thousands of individuals who actively select these preferable habitats (Stoner, 1997). Adult S. gigas are typically found at depths less than 100 meters concentrated in water 10- 30 meters deep due to the photosynthetic light requirements of algae and plant growth (Randall 1964). Predators of the Queen Conch are known to be around 130 ma rine species including various species of mollusc, lobster, turtles, crabs, sharks, rays, snappers and Nassau Grouper, (Coulston, 1987; Culp and Stoner 1999; CITES AC19 Doc 8.3; Culp et al, 1997). As a defence they bury into the sand to hide, unprotected/unburied conch being less likely to survive (Coulston 1987). Conchs burying behaviours show wide variations, possibly related to environmental conditions of water temp conch increase burying in cooler winter period (Appeldoorn 1985) and wind/sea conditions conch are more active at high tide as a response to increased predator activity in the upper intertidal zone (). The increased amount of attached organisms on the shell of older conch suggests a decrease in long-term burying activity with increases in conch size (Iverson et al, 1986). 1.3.2 Conch Reproduction In the wild, adult queen conch maintain a 1:1 sex ratio in an undisturbed population (Cochrane, 1996), and sexual maturity for males and females occurs by approximately between 3.5 and 5 years, usually when the flared lip is greater than approximately 0.5 cm thick (Appeldoorn, 1988b; Berg and Olsen, 1989). Onset of sexual maturity varies within and between different Strombus gigas populations depending on their site specific habitat quality, food availability and water depth all changing growth rates (Martin-Mora et al., 1995), with faster growth rates inducing earlier maturation (Berg, 1976). Queen conch are dioecious (McCarthy, 2007), fertilization is internal when the male inserts a verge into the females siphonal notch, the female retaining the male sperm till fertilisation during the process of laying eggs (McCarty, 2007). The seasonal reproductive period increases copulation as a linear function of bottom water temperature the summer months (Stoner et al. 1992). Water quality, food supply, a 12-hour photoperiod, and temperature limitations all negatively affect individual female pairing, copulation, and egg-laying reproduction causing a decrease in egg masses (Stoner 1992; Shawl 2004). Females lay demersal egg masses in long continuous strands up to 50 to 75 feet long containing 185,000 to 460,000 eggs in each strand (Shawl Davis 1994). These are deposited in requirement sand substrate (Shawl Davies 2004) at an average rate of 1.5m hr-1, completing in less than a day (Randall 1964). Spawning can multiple times during an egg-laying season, the length of which varies depending on geographic location (Stoner?), but lasts typically 6 8 months usually between March and October (TABLE ?) with stimuli other than temperature, such as declining photoperiod, inducing the end of reproductive activity (Stoner et al, 1992) 1.3.3 Life Cycle of Queen Conch Fig 1. 3 Life cycle of the Queen Conch, Strombus gigas 1.3.3.1 Migration and Dispersal The life cycle of Strombus gigas begins by embryonic development that proceeds rapidly, dependent on temperature, after the fertilization of spawning reaching the gastrula stage after 16 hours. The pelagic larvae emerge within 72 hours 5/6 days after spawning (Cochrane 1996). This is also influenced by temperature and by the presence of phytoplankton (Stoner, 1997). By around 12 days they are lobed, free-swimming veligers, found in open water up to 100 meters deep, localised in above the thermocline, where they drift over 18-40 days in the currents of the upper layers feeding on the plankton (Posada and Appeldoorn, 1994; Stoner, 1997). During this period long distance transport by surface currents to deeper water areas (Iversen, et. al 1990) can occur up to 900km (Davis et al., 1993). Larvae then descend, 17 to 22 days after hatching, settling into the adult benthic habitats, when induced by settling cues of substrate (Boettcher and Targett 1996) and location. Larvae then require an environmental stimulus to induce metamorphose response such as the presence of specific algae foods Laurencia poitei and the epiphyte Fosliella spp. found on Thalassia testudinum (Davis, 1994) usually associated within site substratum and sediment (Davis and Stoner, 1994). Metamorphosis is usually within five days of settlement, unique in developmental history as the competence period is shorter than the precompetence period, instead of equal to or longer than the precompetence period. They are competent for only 6 days at 28 to 30C, losing this ability if the required conditions within the habitat cannot be met (Davis and Stoner, 1994). Short-term competence is ordinarily associated with metamorphosis to a broad spectrum of cues and this explains the conch response to a variety of ben thic cues found in juvenile conch seagrass habitats (Davis 1994). The larvae reach metamorphosis between 25 and 29 days turning lobes into feet while the proboscis develops to about 0.2 cm in length developing a small transparent shell within 24 hours called a protoconch (James Wood). Again development shows environmental variation for example larvae of March, April, May, and September have slower development than the larvae of June, July and August. The survival at settlement averaged 305.18% with highest survival June and July with 386.30%, lowest March (227.22%) and September (207.02%) (Brito-Manzano Aldana Aranda, 2004). 1.3.3.2 Juvenile Strombus gigas Young Queen Conch (one year) settle to benthic life on sandy substrate (Cochrane, 1996) where they remain buried as they have a particularly high mortality rate (63%) from predation, and if unburied conch 1.3-3.7cm long show complete mortality (Iverson, 1989). Very few small conch have been found in nature unburied (Ray Stoner, 1995) suggesting that conch may be buried almost continuously until shell lengths reach 5-10cm, when juveniles emerge and become epibenthic, periodically reburying to avoid winter storms (CFMC 1999). After emerging juvenile S. gigas shift habitat from the area of settlement (Sandt Stoner, 1993) aggregating 0.2-2 ind./m2, up to 100,000 individuals over large areas (100 ha) of shallow depth with high tidal circulation where algae production is sufficient and moderate or dense seagrass coverage (Stoner Lally 1996) This specific habitat is chosen as it reduces mortality from predation shown by (Stoner Ray, 1993) who found that 50% of juveniles outside a seagra ss area were killed. (Stoner, 1997) deems these crucial productive nursery habitats must be protected for population stability are determined by a complex unique interaction of oceanographic features, such as seagrass/algae communities and larval recruitment. 1.3.3.3 Conch Morphology Conch shell growth is deterministic; from approx. 3 years conch stops increasing in shell length, growing only by thickening of the shell, particularly the flared lip that it starts producing. At sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately 3 years (Berg 1976) and lasts approximately 7-10 months (Glazer and Berg, 1992), lip flare growth initiates (Appledoorn 1988). Both growth directions occur simultaneously until adult shell length is reached (Appledoorn 1988). Measuring shell lengths is the most accurate method to date juveniles estimates for mean shell length range from approx. 10.8cm for a 1-year old animal, 17cm for a 2-years old animal, and 20.5cm for +3years (Berg, 1976). In adults shell lip thickness increase has been used to estimate growth from maturation in years (Appeldoorn, 1988a, 1990). This is only a relative measure as the deterministic growth affects estimates of juvenile growth and therefore accurate aging, and mortality (CFMC/CFRAMP, 1999). The shell length of a dult S. gigas can decrease by bioerosion of the shell on substrate types, and interior volume of the shell can shrink with age inducing significantly smaller body size (CFMC/CFRAMP, 1999), both factors hindering accurate aging. Extreme spatial variation occurs in shell size of different S. gigas populations. Factors affecting shell size include site habitat quality, food availability and quality and water depth (Martin-Mora et al., 1995), which coupled with the presence of predators and increased depth are all thought to slow juvenile and adult conch morphometric growth. Growth rate is positively correlated to final shell length, indicated by slower growing conch tending to reach smaller final shell lengths and greater age at maturation (Alcolado, 1976). Increased predation can cause weaker, thicker or denser/heavier shells with shorter spines (Delgado et al. 2002; Stoner Davis, 1994), and increasing depth causes tighter coiling of the shell resulting in a wider, thicker shells and fewer, longer spines (Alcolado, 1976, quoted in McCarthy, 2007). 1.3.4 Migrations Conch travel up to 100 yards per day, mostly at night migrating for two reasons: Firstly, a long-lived ontogenetic migration movement of larger juveniles leaving nursery areas moving into deeper water (Stoner et al. 1988), in the direction of the seasonally synchronous tidal currents, increasing in conch density with the passage of the migration. This serves as a density-dependent or habitat-dependant dispersal mechanism for juvenile conchs from centres of recruitment (Stoner et al. 1988). The second reason is a summer migration of adults inshore to shallower water grass beds for spawning (Appledoorn 1993). This begins when temperatures start to increase (Stoner and Standt 1992; Coulston 1987) and the conch return offshore to sand or algae habitat and deeper water. Conch have also been observed to move to deeper water with age (Stoner, 1997). 1.3.5 Natural Mortality of Strombus gigas The Queen Conch is a relatively slow-growing long-lived species, reaching a maximum longevity of between 20 30 years with an average of 26. In deeper water this can be extended to 40 years (NOAA). Appeldoorn (1988) derived a relationship between age and natural mortality that exponentially decreases until the conch reaches sexual maturity (Appeldoorn, 1988). Mortality along with most other morphometric and maturity data also varies seasonally, due to habitat, predation and food limitation (Stoner and Glazer, 1998) but natural mortality of S. gigas has not been accurately quantified due to bioerosion of the shell by substrate (CITES AC19 Doc 8.3, 2003), and it is thought that aging any S. gigas specimen greater than 10 years old should be considered is unreliable, and therefore the complete lifespan of queen conch is unknown (SEDAR, 2007). 1.4 The Biological/Ecological Importance of Strombus gigas Strombus gigas is an important member of marine benthic and macrofauna communities in seagrass meadows. As a hebrivory mollusc, S. gigas regulates the abundance of seagrass detritus and algal blooms of bottom-dwelling algae such as Batophora oerstedi, performing a visual cleaning of the sediment surface from the normal light brown colour to white, clearing filamentous algae and small detrital particles (Stoner et al., 1995). By decreasing significantly the standing crop of biomass of dead or detritus remains of senescent seagrass blades, seagrass epiphytes, macrodetritus and macroalgae, without reducing living seagrass biomass, S. gigas grazing, similar to other important marine herbivory grazers such as Diadema, potentially stimulates rates of primary production of algae, macrophytes, seagrasses and the role of below ground nutrient reserves (Valentine, 1999). In comparison, S. gigas grazing on epiphytes and detritus could adversely influence other components of the benthic communit y such as amphipods and other smaller Mollusca invertebrates, which are dependent upon detritus for food or cover, reduced in numbers by S. gigas grazing. S. gigas must therefore play a major role in the trophic flux of the tropical seagrass community. Over-exploitation may cause significant ecological changes, including an increase in small grazers or rapid accumulation of organic matter in the sediments and trophic cascade changes that may reduce productivity and limit recruitment of S. gigas and all other species (Klumpp, et al 1992.). 1.5 Future Outlook and Conservation Conserving Reproductive Stocks Having ascertained as above, that conch are important to the ecosystem, the CITES inclusion highlighted global concerns, although mainly for the fisheries economy rather than ecological importance. With this well-documented decline of S. gigas that led to the CITES inclusion, research programs were developed designed to monitor conch stock and to determine how best to rehabilitate the depleted population. Attempts at researching methods to halt the decline and preserve the species have been focusing on both preserving the current stocks of native S. gigas specimens and maintaining stocks by ensuring reproduction or transplanting hatchery reared juveniles into the wild. Increasing interest in preserving the natural global stock led to a focused account of conch reproduction, potential mariculture hatcheries and maintenance of the species as a successful fisheries economy. However, to maintain any mariculture or fishery a strong healthy stock of native conch will need to be conserved. Two methods to protect and preserve high densities of native adult queen conch are at the forefront of conservation of the fisheries economy: depth refugia and marine reserves (Stoner, 1997). 1.5.1 Depth Refugia As S. gigas are herbivorous, predominantly found in well-lighted photosynthetic algal regions of shallow sub tidal zones 10-30m deep. The majority of S. gigas are therefore accessible to scuba divers driving the maximum abundance of adult conch to greater depth. Numbers at depths are generally very low (Stoner, 1997) and in response to declining shallow water populations one potential form of management for maintaining a healthy reproductive native population is to limit fishing to free diving (Posada Garcfa-Moliner, 1996). Relatively natural populations of adult conch are, in comparison, uncommon in depths 10 m showing the highest abundance at depth beyond the reach of free-diving conch fisherman. The limit would allow the survival of these small, deepwater refuge populations, ensuring some reproduction to replenish the regional stocks (). A possible problem is that because the vast majority of queen conch spends their first 2-3 years in shallow water, migrating when mature from ba nk nursery sites into deeper water, those on the bank in the fished area may be harvested before reaching water sufficiently deep to protect them from free-diving fishermen (). Also young adults and adults that do not migrate to deep water are then all accessible to free divers; the intense fishing for conch in shallow water could ultimately reduce deep-water refuge stocks (). 1.5.2 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Protected marine areas provide an alternative technique already employed to maintaining high densities of adult conch. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are the globally designated marine specific protected sites, and are used as a management tool for limiting the ecosystem effects of fishing, including the biological and socio-economic aspects. Although increasing, currently only an estimated 0.6% of the worlds oceans are designated MPAs, the largest being the Great Barrier Reef, however many of the largest can be found in the Caribbean oceans. UNEP-WCMC, 2002, defined MPAs as any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment. The MPAsprotect all species and rare habitats or nursing grounds in that environment, which can include historical features such as shipwrecks, and cultural sites o f interest (such as known whale routes). MPAs aim to protect their environment according to area and species, by restricting access, mining and fishing practices, and by prioritising preservation and conservation. In extreme cases tourism is restricted, use of certain boats, and ultrasound are either banned or restricted in the conservation areas. 1.5.2.1 Does Marine Protection work? Ecological Effects of MPAs There is sufficient evidence that fishing negatively affects ecosystems (Sumaila, et al, 2000) and to reduce fishing is the main principle of fishery model predictions. Models predict that the establishment of MPAs, in particular, for overexploited commercial populations, can reduce negative effects of fishing consequently maintaining local economies, and livelihoods of fishermen (Behnken, 1993). Reserve protection ensuring a natural source of maintaining species diversity for the future, creating an ecological success and benefiting sustainability of future fisheries economies, as well as rehabilitate those that have collapsed (Halpern, 2003). The scientific consensus is that, marine reserves, on average, regardless of their size, and with exceptions, result in long-lasting significantly higher density, biomass, individual size, and diversity (Lubchenco et al, 2000) when evaluated for both overall communities and by each functional group within these communities (carnivorous fishes, herbivorous fishes, planktivorous fishes/invertebrate eaters, and invertebrates) within reserves as opposed to outside the reserve (or after reserve establishment vs. before) (Halpern, 2003) and often rapid increases in the abundance, and productivity of marine organisms. By providing refuge nursery areas protecting resident species and heritage protection of important habitats such as coral, MPAs increase density of species and decrease mortality, habitat destruction and any indirect ecosystem effects. On average, research provides evidence that creating a reserve can raise mean organism size, double density, (nearly) triple biomass, and increase diversity of communities by 20-30% relative to the values for unprotected areas (Halper, 2003) and Halpern deems the results to be robust despite the many potential sources of error in the individual studies with considerable variance (Halpern, 2003). Outside reserve boundaries the few studies that have examined spill over effects (Lubche nco et al, 2000), but the increase in density and diversity of marine life, is predicted to increase reproduction potential and by permanently eliminating fishing practices, change the ecosystem from disturbed to mature (Sumaila et al, 2000) restoring community structure (McClanahan and Obura, 1995). Outside of the reserve there is potential for the abundance of exploited species to also increase in areas adjacent to reserves via regionally larval export replenishing populations (Lubechncho et al, 2000). 1.5.2.2 Strombus gigas Specific MPA Restrictions Do they Work? Long-lived slow growing epibenthic species and those requiring highly structured habitat would be expected to thrive in the MPA albeit a long process rebuilding the habitat structure (Watling and Norse, 1998). For S. gigas, the establishment of marine reserves is theoretically the best way to allow populations to recover (Stoner 1997) as from a single-species point of view, MPA are designed to restore populations to pre-industrial fishing levels by reducing the probability of extinction for marine species resident within them by using fishing restrictions (Lubchenco et al, 2000). Invertebrate density trends as shown by other species and functional groups, imply diversity will be higher inside reserves but so far invertebrate biomass has been documented lower within reserves (Halpern, 2003). Indirectly the reserve may however affect numbers of S. gigas predatory fishes, and for invertebrate biomass in particular, the effectiveness depends on its position in the localised food chain. C urrently there are few S. gigas specific evaluation of the biological impact of a reserve on the stock of queen conch, the first conducted in the Turks and Caicos islands (Bene Tewfick, 2003), followed by (Stoner and Ray, 1996) comparing the density of adult queen conch in the 1984 Restricted Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park and in the fished area near Lee Stocking Island, Exuma Cays. Both studies showed increased densities of S. gigas in the reserve as shown in Table 1, Benes results showing density 6 times higher within the reserve and S. gigas shell length significantly smaller in the reserve than in the fished areas describing the existence of a crowding effect (high density induced reduction in growth rate) within the reserve (Bene Tewfik, 2003) hypothesized due to a) reduced fishing mortality following creation of reserve b) existence of natural barriers that impede emigration of adults to outside the reserve. (Stoner, 1997) concluded that marine reserves can conserve spawners i ndicated by juvenile conch numbers increasing in Exuma Park and that the increased larval production within the reserve transporting downstream to areas of fished populations (Stoner, 1997). Table 1. Density of adult queen conch in the Exurna Cays Land and Sea Park near the island of Waderick Wells and in the fished area near Lee Stocking Island, Exuma Cays. (mean + SE for each depth interval). (Stoner Ray, (1996) Habitat/Depth (m) Fishery Reserve Fished Area Bank 53.6 1.7 Shelf 0-2.5 0 0 0 0 2.5-5 34 22 2.2 1.7 5-10 49 18 7.2 4.1 10-15 270 85 60 47 15-20 104 58 88 32 20-25 148 72 18 9 25-30 122 70 0 0 As ecological effect results show, reserves are the best way to provide protection whilst evaluating threats to ocean communities (Lubchenco, et al, 2000), however the even limited exploitation or resumption of fishing practice within the protected area decreases documented benefits (Jennings, 1996; Attwood et al., 1997 Wantiez, 1997; Alcala and Russ, 1990). (Halpern, 2003) reports less positive results in other MPA studies as well, but these studies have been mostly disregarded as interlinked confounding factors, such reserves with unfavourable habitats (Tegner, 1993) and not protecting a sufficient portion of critical habitat (Armstrong et al., 1993) were likely to have caused the less significant result (Sumaila et al, 2000). 1.5.2.3 Future Effectiveness of MPAs for Queen Conch Stocks MPAs alone may not guarantee the long-term persistence of the targeted species as external anthropogenic factors, for example pollution effects and climatic changes, may impact and damage the ecosystem in unpredictable and undetectable ways (Allison et al., 1998) but precautionary principle suggests they may provide some sort of protection. To produce effective reserves diversity of marine habitats must be encompassed alongside other management tools coupled with long term monitoring evaluating management impacts within and outside the reserves (Lubchenco et al, 2000). The effectiveness of any MPA is dependant on its size and its location in relation to life-history characteristics and habitat requirement of the targeted species the MPA aims to protect (Sumaila et al, 2000). 1.5.2.3.1 Location and habitat requirement Both larval dispersal and adult migration patterns must be considered important. Knowledge of home range, larval dispersal, location of settlement, migration patterns, the contribution of neighbouring spawning populations and physical oceanography (Halpern, 2003; Sumaila etal, 2000) all become crucial to be considered when determining the location, size, and number of reserves necessary to protect the targeted species and increase ability to retain a sustainable population (Allison et al., 1998). Permanent or temporal closures will protect critical habitats of nurseries, spawning and feeding grounds and populations during crucial life history events such as migrations and spawning aggregations. The reserve must be not only downstream receiving a regular supply of larva from a spawning population, but must be established in locations where they will contribute to further downstream fisheries (Stoner, 1997). If the rate of adult migration to outside the reserve is fast, efficiency of t he reserve is likely to decrease, as a large proportion of individuals would still be vulnerable to exploitation (Sumaila et al., 2000). 1.5.2.3.2 Size Dependency Successful reserves should be large enough that reproductive stock cannot migrate out, and areas that supply larvae into populations must have some level of protection as well (Stoner, 1997). Stoner, (1997) concludes that the apparent success of the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park is due, in part, to its large size. However (Halpern, 2003) states the likelihood to increase biomass or density is independent of reserve size, suggesting effects of MPAs increase directly rather than proportionally with increasing size of a reserve. Halpern acknowledges Stoners view, in that he theorises equal relative differences in biological measures between small and large reserves can translate into greater absolute differences for the larger reserves. They both conclude larger reserves are required in order to reach the conservation and protection objectives of marine reserves. Building large reserves is difficult with global boundaries and evidence is suggesting that a network of reserves that spans l arge geographic areas would encompassing enough to adequately protect and provide a stable platform for the long-term persistence of marine communities against environmental variability or anthropogenic pollution as much as a single reserve (Ballantine, 1997; Lubchenco et al, 2000) The worlds two largest coral reefs are the Great Barrier Reef in Australia followed by the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) and both are good examples of networks of MPAs. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) extends from the southern half of the Yucatan Peninsula to the Bay Islands of Honduras incorporating the second longest barrier reef in the world (Almada-Villela et. al2003). All coral reef of the MBRS are included within MPAs, and in Honduras all areas off the north coast are included in MPAs as it has diverse assemblage of coral habitats and reef unique in the Western hemisphere are to be preserved. The network system provides the stabilization and some protection of coastal landscapes, and its regulations help preserve important habitats for all marine life, including those of commercial value, ensuring continued employment and income to indigenous people living on MBRS coastal areas. They are assisting the bordering Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras in set ting up communal policies, regulations, and institutional arrangements for the conservation and sustainable use of the area (MBRS). 1.6 Current Honduran Queen Conch Fisheries The broad shelf off north-eastern Honduras and Nicaragua is where the principal fisheries for lobsters, shrimp, and conchs are conducted, with the exception of wildlife refuges in the north Utila, north Roatan, and the northwest side of Guanaja (Miller(3)). Earlier Artisanal free diving Fishing of 1970-1980s, evolved into organized industrial commercial fishing and conchs which were so abundant in places some could be seen from shore in clear waters became depleted in shallow coastal waters spurred by a consistent demand for conch meat in the United States, expanding as scuba gear in 1984 up 37 m in the conch grounds off the north-eastern Honduras coast. Since the mid-1980s, the number of divers employed to catch lobsters and conchs from Honduran industrial vessels has increased sharply, currently totalling about 1,800 make 12, 12 trips/year, taking 15,000-30,000 pounds of conch meat/12-day trip. An estimated 50 fishermen from the Bay Islands, using only mask and fins, and 7 from Pue rto Cortes area, using scuba gear, currently seek lobsters and conchs, taking on average 2-3 conchs a day. In coastal villages eastward of La Ceiba, some fishermen catch conchs by free diving with a mask and fins 10-20 conchs/day, but sometimes none (Zuniga(8)). Only the meat of conchs is taken by cracking a hole to cut the muscle attachment from the shell, often discarding the shell (Fermin(9) or selling to a company in San Pedro Sula, which uses it for making tiles (Galindo(4)). In 1-2 dives, a diver gets about, 15-20lb up to 100-120 lbs and received US$0.95/pound for conch meat (1996). The catches are taken to Roatan, where they are repacked and sold principally in the United States. The fishermen sell to middlemen who in 1996 paid them US$1.43/pound for conch meat whos then sells in the city of La Ceiba and receives US$2.482.86/pound for conch meat (Zuniga(8)). Conch meat sold for US$3.43/pound in markets in San Pedro Sula and Tela in March 1996 (personal observ.). Aquatic produ ction Landings (it) Conch meats = 291 1.7 Honduran MPAs, The Cayos Cochinos Marine Reserve In Honduras, since 1988, 18 officially recognised and 4 proposed protected marine areas have been designated (MPA Global, Marine Protected Area Database) most recently in 2003, the Legislative Presidential decree 114-2003 designated the the Cayos Cochinos islands, off the coast of Northern Honduras, a Marine Natural Monument (Andraka Bouroncle, 2004), and the Honduran Coral Reef Foundation (HCRF) obtained protection for these islands/reefs and the responsibility of the conservation of the islands for 10 years. Fig 4: Detailed Map of the designated Cayos Cochinos Marine National Park The Cayos Cochinos MPA consists of two small islands Cayo Menor (Cochino Pequero) and Cayo Mayor (Cochinor Grande) and 13 coral cays off the north Honduran coast, where the HCRF Management Program implemented focus on the recuperation of the key habitat, taking into account the life cycle of fish, mollusc, and crustaceans, to guarantee the sustainability of the fish in the MPA. This area and management also protection of commercial specials in critical states to provide alternatives to diversify the fishing activities, to alleviate the pressure on the Cayos Cochinos, without significantly affecting the local culture of fishing and by implementing zones with regulations for the conservation and management of these resources, controlled by park rangers and local volunteers monitoring these zones (HCRF). Honduras charges artisanal fishermen to pay a $1.00 per year and industrial corporations $10 a year, for a licence which allows them to fish conch freely with no minimum length regulati on until Honduras closed season of March 16 August 31. 1.8 Aims: In 1997 prior to the establishment of the Marine Protected Area the Smithsonian Institute completed Queen Conch surveys around the islands and showed that stocks were heavily over fished with Adult S. gigas were estimated at 7.3 individuals per hectare, and Juvenile S. gigas also 7.3 individuals per hectare (Tewfik Guzman, 1998). The objective of this project was to repeat these dive surveys, measure the size of all conchs recorded and classify into size categories as in 1997, using the visual abundance survey data to observe whether the management measures implemented by Honduran Coral Reef Foundation in 2002 are protecting the Queen Conch stocks and increasing numbers within the MPA in comparison to 1997. 1.8.1 Visual Abundance Survey Data It was chosen to use visual abundance surveys for assessment of the conch populations as they give fishery-independent estimates of exploitable biomass, future recruitment, as well as habitat distribution, condition, and use by conch populations. Divers can be towed behind boats to count but the benthic nature requires that divers to survey the substrate over a measured area. This allows absolute determination of density and direct observation of individual conch on various substrate types as well as enabling collection of morphometric data. These surveys within the region are reasonably inexpensive and very accessible, short in duration given the limited shelf area of most countries. Large-scale surveys may only be needed every few years as long as other data collections continue in the interim periods. Visual surveys are particularly valuable when used with other data, such as catch and effort, and when a number of surveys have been completed (CFMC CFRAMP 1999). Visual assessments for conch have been done over the years on various spatial scales including: Berg et al. (1992a,b), Friedlander et al. (1994), Appeldoorn (1995b), Berg and Glazer (1995), Tewfik et al. (1997), Tewfik and Bene (2000), Appeldoom and Rodriguez (1994), Berg and Oisen (1989), Appeldoom and B. Rodriguez, Mahon (1990), Smith and van Neirop (1984), Stoner and Ray (1996), Tewfik (1996), Torres Rosado (1987), Weil and Laughlin (1984) and Wood and Olsen (1983).